103.5 Lesson 1

Certificate:

LPIC-1

Version:

5.0

Topic:

103 GNU and Unix Commands

Objective:

103.5 Create, monitor and kill processes

Lesson:

1 of 2

Introduction

Every time we invoke a command, one or more processes are started. A well-trained system administrator not only needs to create processes, but also be able to keep track of them and send them different types of signals if and when required. In this lesson we will look at job control and how to monitor processes.

Job Control

Jobs are processes that have been started interactively through a terminal, sent to the background and have not yet finished execution. You can find out about the active jobs (and their status) in your Linux system by running jobs:

$ jobs

The jobs command above did not produce any output, which means there are no active jobs at the moment. Let us create our first job by running a command that takes some time to finish executing (the sleep command with a parameter of 60) and — while running — press Ctrl+Z:

$ sleep 60
^Z
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

The execution of the command has been stopped (or — rather — suspended) and the command prompt is available again. You can look for jobs a second time and will find the suspended one now:

$ jobs
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

Let us explain the output:

[1]: This number is the job ID and can be used — preceded by a percentage symbol (%) — to change the job status by the fg, bg and kill utilities (as you will be shown later).
+: The plus sign indicates the current, default job (that is, the last one being suspended or sent to the background). The previous job is flagged with a minus sign (-). Any other prior jobs are not flagged.
Stopped: Description of the job status.
sleep 60: The command or job itself.

With the -l option, jobs will additionally display the process ID (PID) right before the status:

$ jobs -l
[1]+  1114 Stopped                 sleep 60

The remaining possible options of jobs are:

-n: Lists only processes that have changed status since the last notification. Possible status include, Running, Stopped, Terminated or Done.
-p: Lists process IDs.
-r: Lists only running jobs.
-s: Lists only stopped (or suspended) jobs.

Note	Remember, a job has both a job ID and a process ID (PID).

Job Specification

The jobs command as well as other utilities such as fg, bg and kill (that you will see in the next section) need a job specification (or jobspec) to act upon a particular job. As we have just seen, this can be — and normally is — the job ID preceded by %. However, other job specifications are also possible. Let us have a look at them:

%n

Job whose id number is n:

$ jobs %1
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

%str

Job whose command line starts with str:

$ jobs %sl
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

%?str

Job whose command line contains str:

$ jobs %?le
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

%+ or %%

Current job (the one that was last started in the background or suspended from the foreground):

$ jobs %+
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

%-

Previous job (the one that was %+ before the default, current one):

$ jobs %-
[1]+  Stopped                 sleep 60

In our case, since there is only one job, it is both current and previous.

Job Status: Suspension, Foreground and Background

Once a job is in the background or has been suspended, we can do any of three things to it:

Take it to the foreground with fg:
```
$ fg %1
sleep 60
```
fg moves the specified job to the foreground and makes it the current job. Now we can wait until it finishes, stop it again with Ctrl+Z or terminate it with Ctrl+C.
Take it to the background with bg:
```
$ bg %1
[1]+ sleep 60 &
```
Once in the background, the job can be brought back into the foreground with fg or killed (see below). Note the ampersand (&) meaning the job has been sent to the background. As a matter of fact, you can also use the ampersand to start a process directly in the background:
```
$ sleep 100 &
[2] 970
```
Together with the job ID of the new job ([2]), we now get its process ID (970) too. Now both jobs are running in the background:
```
$ jobs
[1]-  Running                 sleep 60 &
[2]+  Running                 sleep 100 &
```
A bit later the first job finishes execution:
```
$ jobs
[1]-  Done                    sleep 60
[2]+  Running                 sleep 100 &
```
Terminate it through a SIGTERM signal with kill:
```
$ kill %2
```
To make sure the job has been terminated, run jobs again:
```
$ jobs
[2]+  Terminated                 sleep 100
```

Note	If no job is specified, `fg` and `bg` will act upon the current, default one. `kill`, however, always needs a job specification.

Detached Jobs: `nohup`

The jobs we have seen in the previous sections were all attached to the session of the user who invoked them. That means that if the session is terminated, the jobs are gone. However, it is possible to detach jobs from sessions and have them run even after the session is closed. This is achieved with the nohup (“no hangup”) command. The syntax is as follows:

nohup COMMAND &

Remember, the & sends the process into the background and frees up the terminal you are working at.

Let us detach the background job ping localhost from the current session:

$ nohup ping localhost &
[1] 1251
$ nohup: ignoring input and appending output to 'nohup.out'
^C

The output shows us the job ID ([1]) and the PID (1251), followed by a message telling us about the file nohup.out. This is the default file where stdout and stderr will be saved. Now we can press Ctrl+C to free up the command prompt, close the session, start another one as root and use tail -f to check if the command is running and output is being written to the default file:

$ exit
logout
$ tail -f /home/carol/nohup.out
64 bytes from localhost (::1): icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.070 ms
64 bytes from localhost (::1): icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.068 ms
64 bytes from localhost (::1): icmp_seq=5 ttl=64 time=0.070 ms
^C

Tip	Instead of using the default `nohup.out` you could have specified the output file of your choice with `nohup ping localhost > /path/to/your/file &`.

If we want to kill the process, we should specify its PID:

# kill 1251

Process Monitoring

A process or task is an instance of a running program. Thus, you create new processes every time you type in commands into the terminal.

The watch command executes a program periodically (2 seconds by default) and allows us to watch the program’s output change over time. For instance, we can monitor how the load average changes as more processes are run by typing watch uptime:

Every  2.0s: uptime          debian: Tue Aug 20 23:31:27 2019

 23:31:27 up 21 min,  1 user,  load average: 0.00, 0.00, 0.00

The command runs until interrupted so we would have to stop it with Ctrl+C. We get two lines as output: the first one corresponds to watch and tells us how often the command will be run (Every 2.0s: uptime), what command/program to watch (uptime) as well as the hostname and date (debian: Tue Aug 20 23:31:27 2019). The second line of output is uptime’s and includes the time (23:31:27), how much time the system has been up (up 21 min), the number of active users (1 user) and the average system load or number of processes in execution or in waiting state for the last 1, 5 and 15 minutes (load average: 0.00, 0.00, 0.00).

Similarly, you can check on memory use as new processes are created with watch free:

Every  2.0s: free            debian: Tue Aug 20 23:43:37 2019

 23:43:37 up 24 min,  1 user,  load average: 0.00, 0.00, 0.00
              total        used        free      shared  buff/cache   available
Mem:       16274868      493984    14729396       35064     1051488    15462040
Swap:      16777212           0    16777212

To change the update interval for watch use the -n or --interval options plus the number of seconds as in:

$ watch -n 5 free

Now the free command will run every 5 seconds.

For more information about the options for uptime, free and watch, please refer to their manual pages.

Note	The information provided by `uptime` and `free` is also integrated in the more comprehensive tools `top` and `ps` (see below).

Sending Signals to Processes: `kill`

Every single process has a unique process identifier or PID. One way of finding out the PID of a process is by using the pgrep command followed by the process' name:

$ pgrep sleep
1201

Note	A process' identifier can also be discovered through the `pidof` command (e.g. `pidof sleep`).

Similar to pgrep, pkill command kills a process based on its name:

$ pkill sleep
[1]+  Terminated              sleep 60

To kill multiple instances of the same process, the killall command can be used:

$ sleep 60 &
[1] 1246
$ sleep 70 &
[2] 1247
$ killall sleep
[1]-  Terminated              sleep 60
[2]+  Terminated              sleep 70

Both pkill and killall work much in the same way as kill in that they send a terminating signal to the specified process(es). If no signal is provided, the default of SIGTERM is sent. However, kill only takes either a job or a process ID as an argument.

Signals can be specified either by:

Name:
```
$ kill -SIGHUP 1247
```
Number:
```
$ kill -1 1247
```
Option:
```
$ kill -s SIGHUP 1247
```

To have kill work in a similar way to pkill or killall (and save ourselves the commands to find out PIDs first) we can use command substitution:

$ kill -1 $(pgrep sleep)

As you should already know, an alternative syntax is kill -1 `pgrep sleep`.

Tip	For an exhaustive list of all `kill` signals and their codes, type `kill -l` into the terminal. Use `-KILL` (`-9` or `-s KILL`) to kill rebel processes when any other signal fails.

`top` and `ps`

When it comes to process monitoring, two invaluable tools are top and ps. Whilst the former produces output dynamically, the latter does it statically. In any case, both are excellent utilities to have a comprehensive view of all processes in the system.

Interacting with `top`

To invoke top, simply type top:

$ top

top - 11:10:29 up  2:21,  1 user,  load average: 0,11, 0,20, 0,14
Tasks:  73 total,   1 running,  72 sleeping,   0 stopped,   0 zombie
%Cpu(s):  0,0 us,  0,3 sy,  0,0 ni, 99,7 id,  0,0 wa,  0,0 hi,  0,0 si,  0,0 st
KiB Mem :  1020332 total,   909492 free,    38796 used,    72044 buff/cache
KiB Swap:  1046524 total,  1046524 free,        0 used.   873264 avail Mem

   PID USER      PR  NI    VIRT    RES    SHR S %CPU %MEM     TIME+ COMMAND
   436 carol     20   0   42696   3624   3060 R  0,7  0,4   0:00.30 top
     4 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,3  0,0   0:00.12 kworker/0:0
   399 root      20   0   95204   6748   5780 S  0,3  0,7   0:00.22 sshd
     1 root      20   0   56872   6596   5208 S  0,0  0,6   0:01.29 systemd
     2 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 kthreadd
     3 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.02 ksoftirqd/0
     5 root       0 -20       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 kworker/0:0H
     6 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 kworker/u2:0
     7 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.08 rcu_sched
     8 root      20   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 rcu_bh
     9 root      rt   0       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 migration/0
    10 root       0 -20       0      0      0 S  0,0  0,0   0:00.00 lru-add-drain
    (...)

top allows the user some interaction. By default, the output is sorted by the percentage of CPU time used by each process in descending order. This behavior can be modified by pressing the following keys from within top:

M: Sort by memory usage.
N: Sort by process ID number.
T: Sort by running time.
P: Sort by percentage of CPU usage.

Tip	To switch between descending/ascending order just press `R`.

Other interesting keys to interact with top are:

? or h: Help.
k: Kill a process. top will ask for the PID of the process to be killed as well as for the signal to be sent (by default SIGTERM or 15).
r: Change the priority of a process (renice). top will ask you for the nice value. Possible values range from -20 through 19, but only the superuser (root) can set it to a value which is negative or lower than the current one.
u: List processes from a particular user (by default processes from all users are shown).
c: Show programs' absolute paths and differentiate between userspace processes and kernelspace processes (in square brackets).
V: Forest/hierarchy view of processes.
t and m: Change the look of CPU and memory readings respectively in a four-stage cycle: the first two presses show progress bars, the third hides the bar and the fourth brings it back.
W: Save configuration settings to ~/.toprc.

Tip	A fancier and more user-friendly version of `top` is `htop`. Another — perhaps more exhaustive — alternative is `atop`. If not already installed in your system, use your package manager to install them and give them a try.

An Explanation of the output of `top`

top output is divided into two areas: the summary area and the task area.

The Summary Area in `top`

The summary area is made up of the the five top rows and gives us the following information:

top - 11:10:29 up 2:21, 1 user, load average: 0,11, 0,20, 0,14
- current time (in 24-hour format): 11:20:29
- uptime (how much time the system has been up and running): up 2:21
- number of users logged in and load average of the CPU for the last 1, 5 and 15 minutes, respectively: load average: 0,11, 0,20, 0,14
Tasks: 73 total, 1 running, 72 sleeping, 0 stopped, 0 zombie (information about the processes)
- total number of processes in active mode: 73 total
- running (those being executed): 1 running
- sleeping (those waiting to resume execution): 72 sleeping
- stopped (by a job control signal): 0 stopped
- zombie (those which have completed execution but are still waiting for their parent process to remove them from the process table): 0 zombie
%Cpu(s): 0,0 us, 0,3 sy, 0,0 ni, 99,7 id, 0,0 wa, 0,0 hi, 0,0 si, 0,0 st (percentage of CPU time spent on)
- user processes: 0,0 us
- system/kernel processes: 0,4 sy
- processes set to a nice value — the nicer the value, the lower the priority: 0,0 ni
- nothing — idle CPU time: 99,7 id
- processes waiting for I/O operations: 0,0 wa
- processes serving hardware interrupts — peripherals sending the processor signals that require attention: 0,0 hi
- processes serving software interrupts: 0,0 si
- processes serving other virtual machine’s tasks in a virtual environment, hence steal time: 0,0 st
KiB Mem : 1020332 total, 909492 free, 38796 used, 72044 buff/cache (memory information in kilobytes)
- the total amount of memory: 1020332 total
- unused memory: 909492 free
- memory in use: 38796 used
- the memory which is buffered and cached to avoid excessive disk access: 72044 buff/cache
  
  Notice how the total is the sum of the other three values — free, used and buff/cache — (roughly 1 GB in our case).
KiB Swap: 1046524 total, 1046524 free, 0 used. 873264 avail Mem (swap information in kilobytes)
- the total amount of swap space: 1046524 total
- unused swap space: 1046524 free
- swap space in use: 0 used
- the amount of swap memory that can be allocated to processes without causing more swapping: 873264 avail Mem

The Task Area in `top`: Fields and Columns

Below the summary area there comes the task area, which includes a series of fields and columns reporting information about the running processes:

PID: Process identifier.
USER: User who issued the command that generated the process.
PR: Priority of process to the kernel.
NI: Nice value of process. Lower values have a higher priority than higher ones.
VIRT: Total amount of memory used by process (including Swap).
RES: RAM memory used by process.
SHR: Shared memory of the process with other processes.
S: Status of process. Values include: S (interruptible sleep — waiting for an event to finish), R (runnable — either executing or in the queue to be executed) or Z (zombie — terminated child processes whose data structures have not yet been removed from the process table).
%CPU: Percentage of CPU used by process.
%MEM: Percentage of RAM used by process, that is, the RES value expressed as a percentage.
TIME+: Total time of activity of process.
COMMAND: Name of command/program which generated the process.

Viewing processes statically: `ps`

As said above, ps shows a snapshot of processes. To see all processes with a terminal (tty), type ps a:

$ ps a
  PID TTY      STAT   TIME COMMAND
  386 tty1     Ss+    0:00 /sbin/agetty --noclear tty1 linux
  424 tty7     Ssl+   0:00 /usr/lib/xorg/Xorg :0 -seat seat0 (...)
  655 pts/0    Ss     0:00 -bash
 1186 pts/0    R+     0:00 ps a
 (...)

An Explanation of `ps` Option Syntax and Output

Concerning options, ps can accept three different styles: BSD, UNIX and GNU. Let us see how each of these styles would work when reporting information about a particular process ID:

BSD

Options do not follow any leading dash:

$ ps p 811
  PID TTY      STAT   TIME COMMAND
  811 pts/0    S      0:00 -su

UNIX

Options do follow a leading dash:

$ ps -p 811
  PID TTY          TIME CMD
  811 pts/0    00:00:00 bash

GNU

Options are followed by double leading dashes:

$ ps --pid 811
  PID TTY          TIME CMD
  811 pts/0    00:00:00 bash

In all three cases, ps reports information about the process whose PID is 811 — in this case, bash.

Similarly, you can use ps to search for the processes started by a particular user:

ps U carol (BSD)
ps -u carol (UNIX)
ps --user carol (GNU)

Let us check on the processes started by carol:

$ ps U carol
  PID TTY      STAT   TIME COMMAND
  811 pts/0    S      0:00 -su
  898 pts/0    R+     0:00 ps U carol

She started two processes: bash (-su) and ps (ps U carol). The STAT column tells us the state of the process (see below).

We can get the best out of ps by combining some of its options. A very useful command (producing an output similar to that of top) is ps aux (BSD style). In this case, processes from all shells (not only the current one) are shown. The meaning of the switches are the following:

a: Show processes that are attached to a tty or terminal.
u: Display user-oriented format.
x: Show processes that are not attached to a tty or terminal.

$ ps aux
USER       PID %CPU %MEM    VSZ   RSS TTY      STAT START   TIME COMMAND
root         1  0.0  0.1 204504  6780 ?        Ss   14:04   0:00 /sbin/init
root         2  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    14:04   0:00 [kthreadd]
root         3  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    14:04   0:00 [ksoftirqd/0]
root         5  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S<   14:04   0:00 [kworker/0:0H]
root         7  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    14:04   0:00 [rcu_sched]
root         8  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    14:04   0:00 [rcu_bh]
root         9  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    14:04   0:00 [migration/0]
(...)

Let us explain the columns:

USER: Owner of process.
PID: Process identifier.
%CPU: Percentage of CPU used.
%MEM: Percentage of physical memory used.
VSZ: Virtual memory of process in KiB.
RSS: Non-swapped physical memory used by process in KiB.
TT: Terminal (tty) controlling the process.
STAT: Code representing the state of process. Apart from S, R and Z (that we saw when describing the output of top), other possible values include: D (uninterruptible sleep — usually waiting for I/O), T (stopped — normally by a control signal). Some extra modifier include: < (high-priority — not nice to other processes), N (low-priority — nice to other processes), or + (in the foreground process group).
STARTED: Time at which the process started.
TIME: Accumulated CPU time.
COMMAND: Command that started the process.

Guided Exercises

oneko is a nice funny program that displays a cat chasing your mouse cursor. If not already installed in your desktop system, install it using your distribution’s package manager. We will use it to study job control.
- Start the program. How do you do that?
- Move the mouse cursor to see how the cat chases it. Now suspend the process. How do you do that? What is the output?
- Check how many jobs you currently have. What do you type? What is the output?
- Now send it to the background specifying its job ID. What is the output? How can you tell the job is running in the background?
- Finally, terminate the job specifying its job ID. What do you type?
Discover the PIDs of all the processes spawned by the Apache HTTPD web server (apache2) with two different commands:
Terminate all apache2 processes without using their PIDs and with two different commands:
Suppose you have to terminate all instances of apache2 and you do not have time to find out what their PIDs are. How would you accomplish that using kill with the default SIGTERM signal in a one-liner:
Start top and interact with it by performing the following:
- Show a forest view of processes:
- Show full paths of processes differentiating between userspace and kernelspace:
Type the ps command to display all processes started by the Apache HTTPD web server user (www-data):
- Using BSD syntax:
- Using UNIX syntax:
- Using GNU syntax:

Explorational Exercises

The SIGHUP signal can be used as a way to restart certain daemons. With the Apache HTTPD web server — for example — sending SIGHUP to the parent process (the one started by init) kills off its children. The parent, however, re-reads its configuration files, re-opens log files and spawns a new set of children. Do the following tasks:
- Start the web server:
- Make sure you know the PID of the parent process:
- Make the Apache HTTPD web server restart by sending it the SIGHUP signal to the parent process:
- Check that the parent was not killed and that new children have been spawned:
Although initially static, the output of ps can be turned dynamic by combining ps and watch. We will monitor the Apache HTTPD web server for new connections. Before doing the tasks described below it is recommended that you read the description of the MaxConnectionsPerChild directive in Apache MPM Common Directives.
- Add the MaxConnectionsPerChild directive with a value of 1 in the configuration file of apache2 — in Debian and derivatives that is found in /etc/apache2/apache2.conf; in the CentOS family, in /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf. Do not forget to restart apache2 for the changes to take effect.
- Type in a command that uses watch, ps and grep for apache2 connections.
- Now open a web browser or use a command line browser such as lynx to establish a connection to the web server through its IP address. What do you observe in the output of watch?
As you have learned, by default top sorts the tasks by percentage of CPU usage in descending order (the higher values on top). This behaviour can be modified with the interactive keys M (memory usage), N (process unique identifier), T (running time) and P (percentage of CPU time). However, you can also sort the task list to your liking by launching top with the -o switch (for more information, check top’s man page). Now, perform the following tasks:
- Launch top so that the tasks are sorted by memory usage:
- Verify that you typed the right command by highlighting the memory column:
ps also has an o switch to specify the columns you want shown. Investigate this option and do the following tasks:
- Launch ps so that only information about user, percentage of memory used, percentage of CPU time used and full command is shown:
- Now, launch ps so that the only information displayed is that of the user and the name of the programs they are using:

Summary

In this lesson you have learned about jobs and job control. Important facts and concepts to bear in mind are:

Jobs are processes that are sent to the background.
Apart from a process ID, jobs are also assigned a job ID when created.
To control jobs, a job specification (jobspec) is required.
Jobs can be brought to the foreground, sent to the background, suspended and terminated (or killed).
A job can be detached from the terminal and session in which it was created.

Likewise, we have also discussed the concept of processes and process monitoring. The most relevant ideas are:

Processes are running programs.
Processes can be monitored.
Different utilities allow us to find out the process ID of processes as well as to send them signals to terminate them.
Signals can be specified by name (e.g. -SIGTERM), number (e.g. -15) or option (e.g. -s SIGTERM).
top and ps are very powerful when it comes to monitoring processes. The output of the former is dynamic and keeps updating constantly; on the other hand, ps reveals output statically.

Commands used in this lesson:

jobs: Display active jobs and their status.
sleep: Delay for a specific amount of time.
fg: Bring job to the foreground.
bg: Move job to the background.
kill: Terminate job.
nohup: Detach job from session/terminal.
exit: Exit current shell.
tail: Display most recent lines in a file.
watch: Run a command repeatedly (2 seconds cycle by default).
uptime: Display how long the system has been running, the number of current users and system load average.
free: Display memory usage.
pgrep: Look up process ID based on name.
pidof: Look up process ID based on name.
pkill: Send signal to process by name.
killall: Kill process(es) by name.
top: Display Linux processes.
ps: Report a snapshot of the current processes.

Answers to Guided Exercises

oneko is a nice funny program that displays a cat chasing your mouse cursor. If not already installed in your desktop system, install it using your distribution’s package manager. We will use it to study job control.
- Start the program. How do you do that?
  
  By typing oneko into the terminal.
- Move the mouse cursor to see how the cat chases it. Now suspend the process. How do you do that? What is the output?
  
  By pressing the key combo Ctrl+z:
  [1]+ Stopped oneko
- Check how many jobs you currently have. What do you type? What is the output?
  $ jobs [1]+ Stopped oneko
- Now send it to the background specifying its job ID. What is the output? How can you tell the job is running in the background?
  $ bg %1 [1]+ oneko &
  The cat is moving again.
- Finally, terminate the job specifying its job ID. What do you type?
  $ kill %1
Discover the PIDs of all the processes spawned by the Apache HTTPD web server (apache2) with two different commands:
```
$ pgrep apache2
```
or
```
$ pidof apache2
```
Terminate all apache2 processes without using their PIDs and with two different commands:
```
$ pkill apache2
```
or
```
$ killall apache2
```
Suppose you have to terminate all instances of apache2 and you do not have time to find out what their PIDs are. How would you accomplish that using kill with the default SIGTERM signal in a one-liner:
```
$ kill $(pgrep apache2)
kill `pgrep sleep`
```
or
```
$ kill $(pidof apache2)
kill `pidof sleep`
```
Note

Since SIGTERM (15) is the default signal, it is not necessary to pass any options to kill.
Start top and interact with it by performing the following:
- Show a forest view of processes:
  
  Press V.
- Show full paths of processes differentiating between userspace and kernelspace:
  
  Press c.
Type the ps command to display all processes started by the Apache HTTPD web server user (www-data):
- Using BSD syntax:
  $ ps U www-data
- Using UNIX syntax:
  $ ps -u www-data
- Using GNU syntax:
  $ ps --user www-data

Answers to Explorational Exercises

The SIGHUP signal can be used as a way to restart certain daemons. With the Apache HTTPD web server — for example — sending SIGHUP to the parent process (the one started by init) kills off its children. The parent, however, re-reads its configuration files, re-opens log files and spawns a new set of children. Do the following tasks:
- Start the web server:
  $ sudo systemctl start apache2
- Make sure you know the PID of the parent process:
  $ ps aux | grep apache2
  The parent process is that started by the root user. In our case the one with PID 1653.
- Make the Apache HTTPD web server restart by sending it the SIGHUP signal to the parent process:
  $ kill -SIGHUP 1653
- Check that the parent was not killed and that new children have been spawned:
  $ ps aux | grep apache2
  Now you should see the parent apache2 process together with two new children.
Although initially static, the output of ps can be turned dynamic by combining ps and watch. We will monitor the Apache HTTPD web server for new connections. Before doing the tasks described below it is recommended that you read the description of the MaxConnectionsPerChild directive in Apache MPM Common Directives.
- Add the MaxConnectionsPerChild directive with a value of 1 in the config file of apache2 — in Debian and derivatives that is found in /etc/apache2/apache2.conf; in the CentOS family, in /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf. Do not forget to restart apache2 for the changes to take effect.
  
  The line to include in the config file is MaxConnectionsPerChild 1. One way to restart the web server is through sudo systemctl restart apache2.
- Type in a command that uses watch, ps and grep for apache2 connections.
  $ watch 'ps aux | grep apache2'
  or
  $ watch "ps aux | grep apache2"
- Now open a web browser or use a command line browser such as lynx to establish a connection to the web server through its IP address. What do you observe in the output of watch?
  
  One of the child processes owned by www-data disappears.
As you have learned, by default top sorts the tasks by percentage of CPU usage in descending order (the higher values on top). This behaviour can be modify with the interactive keys M (memory usage), N (process unique identifier), T (running time) and P (percentage of CPU time). However, you can also sort the task list to your liking by launching top with the -o switch (for more information, check top’s man page). Now, do the following tasks:
- Launch top so that the tasks are sorted by memory usage:
  $ top -o %MEM
- Verify that you typed the right command by highlighting the memory column:
  
  Press x.
ps has also an o switch to specify the columns you want shown. Investigate about this and do the following tasks:
- Launch ps so that only information about user, percentage of memory used, percentage of CPU time used and full command is shown:
  $ ps o user,%mem,%cpu,cmd
- Now, launch ps so that the only information displayed is that of the user and the name of the programs they are using:
  $ ps o user,comm